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These results are useful for the development of new, more effective means to facilitate the stay and work of space travelers in a long spaceflight. Thus, the main role in the adaptation of the trochlear nucleus to microgravity conditions, apparently, belongs to the dendrites of motoneurons, which rearrange their structure and function to enhance the flow of sensory information.

In addition, the experimental animals showed an increase in the size of the cisterns of the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum in comparison with the control group of animals left on Earth, for which the environmental conditions in the spacecraft were reproduced. Apparently, to ensure such plastic changes, the number and size of mitochondria in the soma of motoneurons and in axons coming from the vestibular structures increased. In addition, the dendrites of these motoneurons significantly reorganized geometry and orientation under microgravity conditions the number of dendritic branches has been increased to enhance the reduced signal flow. Cell nuclei of the motoneurons had a more simplified rounded shape than in the control. As a result, it was shown that the motoneurons in the nucleus of the trochlear nerve changed their morphology under the influence of microgravity. In this work, we carried out a qualitative and quantitative light-optical and ultrastructural analysis of the nuclei of the trochlear nerve in mice after a 30-day flight on the Bion-M1 biosatellite and followed by a stay for 13-14 hours under the influence of the Earth’s gravity after landing. To elucidate the cellular processes underlying the atypical vertical nystagmus that occurs under microgravity conditions, it seems necessary to study the state of these nuclei in animals in more detail after prolonged space flights. It is known that the movement of the eyeball in the vertical direction is carried out by muscles that are innervated by the trochlear nerve (CN IV) and the oculomotor nerve (CN III). Here we review the current research investigating laterality in fishes and highlight instances which may have important consequences for fish welfare.ĭuring spaceflight and immediately after it, adaptive neuroplastic changes occur in the sensorimotor structures of the central nervous system, which are associated with changes of mainly vestibular and visual signals. Moreover, assessment of laterality through behavioural assays may well be a useful welfare indicator in its own right given the close apparent link between laterality, personality and stress reactivity. Here we suggest that laterality has wide-spread consequences for fish behaviour and a better understanding of how laterality shapes and interacts with fish behaviour may provide opportunities to enhance fish welfare. A greater understanding of fish behaviour can lead to the development of welfare indicators. We are not only morally obliged to ensure good welfare of animals in our care, but increasingly required to do so by law. Concern for fish welfare has grown considerably in recent years, with many states and territories now protecting fish through animal welfare regulations. In all of these contexts, fish welfare can be compromised through anthropogenic means. Humans interact with fishes in many contexts including aquaculture, scientific study and companion animals. Although the mechanism of the mutual regulation of MN function at the level of the VD remains unclear, there are grounds for suggesting that it is linked with excitatory serotoninergic transmission, firstly because it has the role of the main component in the influence on VD and secondly because at the level of the lateral dendrite and axon hillock, MN excitability is reciprocally modulated as a result of its indi-rect action via glycinergic inhibitory terminals. This is indicated by the fact that unilateral dysfunction is accompanied by increases in the functional activity of the contralateral MN, with decreases in the size of its VD and degeneration of most afferent synapses on this dendrite.

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Morphofunctional studies have demonstrated that the ventral dendrite (VD), which receives the terminals of nerve fibers running from the ipsilateral tectum, in turn innervated by the optic nerve from the contralateral eye, has reciprocal influences on the integral functional activity of Mauthner neurons (MN), apparent as motor asymmetry in goldfish in conditions of free behavior.